TEMPLES OF RAJASTHAN

The earliest dated temple in Rajasthan is the Shitaleshwara Temple at Chandrabhaga, near Jhalrapatan (Distriact Jhalawar), founded in 689. Of this temple only the sanctum and the vestibule, with a very late roof have survived. The hypostyle mandapa in front of the vestibule appears to be later by at kleast a century. The sanctum has prominent niche-shrines on the cardinal offsets. The podium-mouldings are bold and simple, the kalasha moulding being repla ced on the cardinals by a band decorated with lotus-scrolls and on some projectioins by ornate square rafter ebds. The wall has a plain surface, punctuated with heavy square pilasters, the latter decorated with a vase-and-foilage motif at the base and capital, a median band of scrolls, a lotus-band of kirttimukhas and geese and brackets of a plain, curved profile. The wall is surmounted by a eave-cornice. The sanctum door-frame was originally of four ornamented bands. Ganga and Yamuna are represented in the sculptural tradition of the Gupta period on its lower part. The vestibule is an oblong compartment with a row of 4 tall pillars and pilasters, showing vase-and-foilage at the square base, ornate octagonal shaft surmounted by vase-and-foilage capital and brackets of plain curved profile.
The surviving remains of the ruined Shiva Temple at Kans (District Kota), dated by an ins cription in 738, indicate that the temple was similar to the Shitaleshwara Temple on plan and design.
The Harshat-mata Temple at Abaneri (District Jaipur ruined temple of which onbly the sanctum, shorn of its superstructure, has survived standing on 3 stepped terraces,while
remains of its pillared mandapa and porch. The by an ambulatory is pancha-ratha on plan sculptured niche on each buttress of the
show Vasudeva-Vishnu, Pradyumna and Balarama-Sankarshana, respectively, on the south, west and north, indicating that the original temple was dedicated to Vishnu. In the sanctum is now enshrined an image of four-armed Harasiddhi, locally called Harshat-mata. The fa ces of the sanctum shell and the uppermost terrace are decorated with niches, containing religious and secular sculptures, each surmounted by a large pediment. The sculptures include romantic themes of dance, music, garden-sport and love, depicted with rich luxuriousness and a sense of gay abandon. The socle mouldings are bold and simple and the sculptures show volume and grace, reminis cent of the Gupta tradition. The decorative motifs, illustrated by the pediment composed of bold chaitya-dormers, pilasters surmounted by quarter lotus brackets, lumas and wavy vegetal patterns of palmettes, indicate that this temple is assignable to the 8th century.
A temple of a comparable design and date but without an ambulatory has been uncovered at Mandor (District Jodhpur). It is, however, badly dilapidated and only the podium mouldings of its sanctum proper and two terraces have survived. This temple appears to have undergone many subsequent re constructions.
The significant group of temples of Osian (District Jodhpur) belongs to two series, one early and the other late. The earlier series is represented by nearly a dozen and the later by half a dozen temples.
The earlier Osian temples are characterised by certain decorative and architectural peculiarities. They stands on a high terrace with bold mouldings, usually surmounted by a band, decorated with a wavy vegetal design. The terrace is punctuated with sculptured niches which are crowned by pediments and certain images of Ganesha, Kubera and other Brahmanical gods and goddesses. The socle mouldings are bold and simple. The temples are normally pancha-ratha on plan and in elevation and sculptured niches on all the 5 projections of the wakll, but a temples leave the projections flanking the cardinal offsets niches are surmounted by pediments and are larget on the latter display images of family-deities Trivikrama, Varaha, Vishnu or Harihara on
The Regents are invariably represented deities like Ganesha, Surya, Chandra, Revanta, Brahma, and Parvati on the auxiliary offsets. Temple 6 and the north-west Temple, however, show respectively, ascetics and apsaras (nymphs) on the auxiliary offsets.
The wall is surmounted by a frieze of chain, above which occurs usually broad recess, decorated with Krishna-lila scenes on temples 1 to 4 and with diapers of half-diamonds on the remaining temples. The shikhara, covered with a bold mesh of chaitya-dormers, is invariably pancha-ratha in design and of 5 to 7 storeys. The central offset extends to the neck which is surmounted by an amalaka and pot-finial. The earlier temples are, as a rule, without an ambulatory and consist on plan of a sanctum, an open hall and a porch. The outer bays of the mandapa are provided with balustrades punctuated with projecting elephant's heads, as on the Gadarmal Temple at Badoh (p.23). In many cases the mandapa is of the nava-ranga variety with occasional lateral transepts. The so-called Sun Temple and the oldest temple of the Sachiyamata group have each a pair of tall pillars at the entrance to the porc h. At least three temples are of the panchayatana type, viz., Harihara Temples 1 and 2 and the so-called Sun Temple, the last-mentioned also showing traces of an enclosing cloister.
The sanctum doorway has 4 or 5 bands, one of which is decorated with an interlacing design of adoring nagas, whose tails are held in the hands of a Garuda figure presented as the tutelary image. The vestibule has a porch resting on 2 pillars and 2 pilasters, the latter usually decorated with elegant figures of apsaras, sometimes surmounted by representations of Vasudeva-Vishnu and Balarama-Sankarashana, both riding on Garuda. The pilars of the vestibule and mandapa are heavily decorated with designs of vase-and-foilage, kirttimukhas, scrolls, and a square ribbed cushion, surmounted by either double roll or palmette brackets. The enclosing dwarf pillars are less elaborately ornamented and usually carry double-roll brackets. The ceilings of the vestibule and the hall are highly decorated, the former with an elaborate design of nagapasha entwining vidyadharas (divine angels).
Among the earlier Osian temples, Harihara Temple No.l3and the Jaina Temple of Mahavira are of exceptioinal design. The former is unique among the Osian temples in that its hall- ceiling and roof are of a vaulted design and its platform is quite plain. Its sanctum is rectangular on plan and lperhaps had a wagon-vault superstructure.

TEMPLES OF THE PRATIHARA AGE

The surviving temples of central India and Rajasthan dating from the 8th and 9th centuries have certain common features, which distinguish them from the preceding and following theistic buildings. As these regions were largely under the sway of the Gurjara-Pratihara during the 8th and 9th centuries, we may call this style Pratihara. Since the Pratiharas ruled over an extensive empire from Kanauj, the style spread over vast tracts of north India, including the present States of Uttar Pradesh and the Punjab as far as the Himalayas and had its reverberations further east and west. It is but natural that a style so extensive as this should show regional variations and local idioms.

The Pratihara temples of central India are characterised by a low socle, a simple and relatively stunted spire, a wall decorated with a single band of sculptured niches crowned byh tall pediments and an unpretentious plan, general consiting of only the sanctum and vestibule which in a few cases is preceded by a porch.

The Pratihara temples of Rajasthan, represented by the group at Osian (p.28), have a more elaborate plan and a slightly different design and decorative scheme. As these temples play a vital role in the development of the regional style, their discussion has been reserved for the following chapter on the temples in Rajasthan.

The group of temples at Naresar, near Gwalior, forming the earliest examples of the central Indian Pratihara style show a square sanctum with a curvilinear tri-ratha spire of a stunted shape and a constricted vestibule with a simple gabled roof. Their doorway is of the overdoor design usually with three simple bands decorated with scrolls, pilasters and serpents whose tails are held in the hands of Garuda represented centrally on the lintel. The lintel shows short pediments, surmounted by a frieze of chain-and-bell design which continues round the shrine. The jangha (wall) is plain except for sculptured niches on the central offsets depicting deities like Ganesha, Karttikeya, Lakulisha, Surya and Parvati. The site also has an interesting rectangular shrine showing 2 major offsets on the longer rear side with usual sculptured niches and a wagon-vault roof. The group of temples of Batesara, District Morena and the Mahadeva Temple at Amrol, both situated not far from Gwalior, are similar on plan, the latter being slightly larger and more elaborate in ornamentation. The Amrol temple has on each projection of its wall a sculptured niche crowned by a short but bold pediment. Its doorway is more ornate, the pilasters being embellished with graceful figures of nymphs and loving couples. These temples anticipate the Teli-ka-Mandir at Gwalior and are datable roughly to the 8th century.

The ruined Shiva Temple at Majhua, District Shivapuri, M.P., is comparable in plan and date with the Amrol temple but shows divergence in details of design and ornamentatioin. This temple replaces the torus moulding of the podium on the central offset by ornate square rafter ends, a feature characteristic of central India from earlier times. The wall shows a prominent niche qhich is confined to the central projection, the remaining projections being plain. A broad recess separates the wall from the spire which repeats the bhumi-amalakas on the flanks of the central offset, as seen on the roughly contemporary temple at Pashtar in Saurashtra and Temple No.IV at Barakar, Disttrict Burdwan, West Bengal.

A small shrine at Telahi, not far from Mahua, is slightly later in date with an advanced plan showing a pancha-ratha sanctum with a porch in front. The jangha (wall) shows pilasters of an early Pratihara order on the offsets flanking the central one and dikpala figures in niches crowned byh pediments in the corner offsets. The recesses of the jangha are also decorated with tall thin pediments.

The Teli-ka-Mandir at Gwalior is the grandest temple of the Pratihara 8th centuryu, but is exceptional in design. It consists on plan of a rectangular sanctum and vestibule, the former surmounted by a lofty (24.40m high) wagon-vault superstructure. The podium mouldings are simple and bold, but include a recessed frieze of sculptures, representing gods and goddesses in niches surmounted by richly carved scrolls. The wall at cardinal offsets displays elaborate niches-shrines surmounted by a large pediment or shikhara- motif. The wall also shows smaller replicas of the same design on the corner buttresses. The shikhara portioin is composed of 2 storeys, indicated by lateral amalakas, which are crowned by a wagon-vault roof of 2 components. On the shorter sides, the central offset of the shikhara shows a progressively widening series of chaitya-dormers, surmounted by an enormous sun-window, crowned by an ornate arch. On the longer sides, however, the oblong superstructure is decorated with a monotonous design of double rows of niches. The temple is entered through a grand flight of steps leading to an elaborate doorway of 5 bands, in the lower part are carved elegant figures of river-goddesses, flanked by attendants and Shiva dwarapalas. The doorway of the sanctum proper differs only in introducing Shakta dwarapalas in the place of Shakti. The decorative and plastic the me and style together with the palaeography of its short inscriptions suggest c.750 as the date of this temple which appears to have been founded by King Yashovarman of Kanauj.

In decorative and architectural features the ruined Shiva Temple at Indor (District Guna, M.P.) bears striking affinity to the Teli-ka-Mandir temple at Gwalior, with which it is not only co-eval but may even share common authorship. This temple however, is circular on plan' and has a sanctum of 12 offsets. Rising above the bold podium mouldings, the wall consists of ornate offsets alternating with plain angular wall surface, the whole surmounted by the shikhara. The major offsets are decorated with niches which are surmounted by tall pediments and contain images of Ganesha, Karttikeya, Uma and the 8 Regents of quarters, which represent fine specimens of the Pratihara art.

The above temples are followed by the Jarai Math at Barwasagar (District Jhansi), and Gadarmal Temple at Badoh (Disttrict Vidisha). Both have a rectangular sanctum and niche-shrines on the main offsets as at Teli-ka-Mandir, but unlike the latter, their sanctum is pancha-ratha on plan and in elevation, roofed by a partly preserved massive shikhara. Both have elaborately ornamented pillars and entrance door-frame of 5 bands, but while the Jarai Math is an unpretentious structure comprising only a sanctum and a vestibule, the Gadarman Temple adds to these a mandapa with transepts and a porch enclosed by a high balustrade punctuated with projecting elephant heads. The Gadarmal Temple stands on an ample, ornate platform surrounded by seven subsidiary shrines and has lavishly decorated mandapa pillars and is a little more evolved on plan and in design than the foregoing Pratihara temples.

The Chaturmukha Mahadeva Temple at Nachna, in District Panna, fa mous for its diamond fields, carries over its sanctum a developed northern shikhara, of pancha-ratha design. The temple preserves only a square tri-ratha sanctum with a plain interior and a richly decorated exterior. The interior, lighted by a doorway in the east and trellis-windows on the remaining 3 sides, enshrines a powerfully rendered chaturmukha Shiva-linga, noted for the sublime expressioin on its 4 faces. Externally the trellis-windows on the cardinal offsets are surmounted by a pair of niches, depicting Vidyadharas (divine attendants)_ with their consorts, crowned by pediments of chaitya-dormers. Each corner buttress of the wall shows a niche carrying an image of the Regent of the cardinal point, sur mounted by an elaborate pediment. Of 5 storeys, the shikhara is covered with a developed mesh of chaitya-dormers. All its buttresses project beyond the shoulder of the spire, which is surmounted by a heavy amalaka. While the windows and doorways of the temple are carved with friezes depicting dwarfs, scrolls, river-goddesses and the over-door design in the Gupta tradition, its mouldings and shikhara design, the treatment of the 'Regents, and decorative architectural motifs like the pediment, heart-shaped flowers, garland-loops and square rafter ends carved with conventional lion heads are in the developed Pratihara style of the 9th century.

The small but well-proportioned Sun Templeat Mankheda (District Tikamgarh, M.P.) is a gem among the Pratihara temples, roughly assignable to the same date as the above-noted temples. Essentially similar to the Jarai Math in design and ornamentation, the temple consists of a square pancha-ratha sanctum with a shikhara, a vestibule with an ornate roof surmounted by a lion figure and a simple porch. The shikhara is well-preserved and has excellent proportion. Its central offset projects beyond the neck which is surmounted by a heavy amalaka.
The Kutakeshvara Temple at Pathari (District Vidisha) consisting of a Kadamba type of tri-ratha pyramidical shikhara of horizontal tiers, a constricted vestibule and a porch of single bay is as simple as the rock-cut Chaturbhuja Temple at Gwalior, comprising a sanctum with a pancha-ratha shikhara and similar vestibule and porch. Both are assignable to the 9th century, the latter being securely dated to 875 by an inscription pertaining to the reign of Pratihara Mihira Bhoja.
Of the Jaina temples at Deogarh (District Jhansi) Nos. 12 and 15 are best preserved and are referable to the 9th century. Temple 15 is a triple-shrined structure with the roof of each component shrine lost and the pllain wall relieved by shallow sculptured niches surmounted by pediments. The structure consists of 3 tiny sancta (with the usual niche-shrines of the central offsets on their outer face) sharing a common assembly hall which is entered through a porch and a doorway. The 4 pillars and 12 pilasters of the mandapa and the door-frame bear typical Pratihara ornaments. Temple 12 comprises only a sanctum with an ambulatory and a vestibule. Its sanctum is pancha-ratha on plan and carries a heavy shikhara. Its outer decor is distinctive and shows on the wall latticed windows alternating with pilasters, the former inset with shallow niches sur mounted by thin and tall pediments. The niches contain relief figures of 24 labelled Jaina Yakshis around the wall which shows door-frame designs on the three cardinal projections.
The Mahadevi Temple at Gyaraspur (District Vidisha) is partly rock-cut and partly structural. It is a mature example of the Pratihara style, consisting on plan of a porch, hall, vestibule and sanctum with an ambulatory. Each of its shorter sides show 3 such windows, 2 projecting from the mandapa and 1 from the sanctum proper. The sanctum is tri-ratha on plan with a pancha-ratha shikhara of 9 turrets which is strikingly similar in design to that of the Shiva Temple at Kerakot in Kutch (p.35). The buttresses of the shikhara extend to the neck which is surmounted by a pair of amalakas and a pot-finial. The roofs of the porch and the hall are pyramidical composed of horizontal tiers. The temple has 2 ornate doorways of 5 bands. The hall doorway shows a figure of Chakreshvari as the tutelary image,.while the sanctum door-frame is carved with a row of standing Jinas on the lintel. This temple shows on the wall faces iconographically developed images of Jaina Yakshas and Yakshis some of which are labelled in the characters of the late 9th century. The mature decorative motifs and architectural features combined with the developed iconography would also indicate late 9th century as the date of this temple.
The Pratihara temples of central India are thus seen to have a simple plan and design, displaying some characteristic ornaments of the style, including tall p[ediments, a frieze of garland-loops on the top of the wall, a band of nagas on the door-frame and rich carvings of vase-and-foilage, s crolls, krittimukhas and a square, ribbed cushion-cap[ital to be found largely on the pillars.
The tiny shrine of Shiva at Jagatsukh (near Manali in District Kulu of Himachal Pradesh) dates from the early 8th century and is among the earliest specimens of the Pratihara style, with its simple tri-ratha sanctum, resembling that of the Naresar group of temples, roofed by a shikhara showing even bolder chaitya-dormers. The earliest temples at Jageshwar and Gopeshwar and the Shiva temple at Lakhamandal, all situated in the Himalayan hills, are also assignable to the 8th century. Most of these temples comprise tri-ratha or pancha-ratha sanctum roofed by a short, heavy-shouldered shikhara and preceded by a porch, adding sometimes a mandapa in beetween. Gopeshwar and Jageshwar also have rectangular shrines with wagon-vault superstructure, resembling that of the Teli-ka-Mandir, Gwalior (p,21). To the early 9th century may be attributed the Basheshwar Mahadeva Temple at Bajaura (District Kulu), which shows an advanced plan and architectural design with a four-faced opening and has elongated statutory of the regional art style. Dating from the 8th century are the woodedn temples of Shakti Devi at Chhatrarhi and of Lakshana Devi at Brahmaur in the Chamba region, both enshrining as cult-images bronze figures of Devi, known for their slender and elongated forms. These are the earliest surviving wooden shrines showing a rich repertoire of the Pratihara ornaments and decorative motifs with some influence of the Gandhara style and the arts of Nepal and Kashmir. The rock-cut temple complex at Masrur (District Kangra), dating from the later half of the 9th century, is also a notable Pratihara monument of considerable artistic and architectural significance.

LETTER TO A STUDENT

It is true that being a student of a rural school you have to face many inconveniences. But you must remember that you have many advantages too. In towns and cities, the havoc created by television, cinema, hotels and blaring loudspeakers much disturbs the studies of students. On the other hand, the uncontaminated atmosphere and tranquil surroundings of the villages make them ideal for studies with good concentration. Though the students in cities have various facilitires, the possibility of their falling prey to harmful distractions is high. You must be knowing how parents and teachers have to constantly keep vigil and protect them from lurking dangers. Now, coming to your problem--you have written, 'I am now in the tenth standard; the lessons have commenced, but I am unable to understand many of them'. Another student also has written to me that his teachers do not teach properly. That is his misfortune. At least you are lucky that you have good teachers. Well, here are a few suggestions that will, I hope, help you to understand the lessons better and pass the exams successfully. 1. First and foremost--as soon as you wake up, have a wash and offer 'pranams' to God and to your parents. Your daily routine should begin with this. Never doubt the truth that it is the blessings of God and elders that brings success to your endeavours. You may ask, 'When the right endeavoursthemselves can bring the desired results, what is the necessity of blessings?' But you must know that those blessings will endow you with the right state of mind to undertake your work. You might not realize this until you grow older. But for now, you just believe in these words of wise people. There is another interesting point: you do not have to ask them for their blessings. When you bow down to God and elders with sincere devotion, the thought--'May he be blessed!' --arises spontaneously in their hearts. This is the law. 2. Let me now tell you about the significance of having a time-table. You know pretty well how prayer, classes and games are all accommodated in your school hours within regular periods and so many lessons are covered. The secret behind this is the time-table. Yet, students these days return home from school and instead of revising the lessons, while away their time in only playing, watching the television, reading novels and roaming about. When the exams approach near, they try to study all the texts together, get tensed up and feel miserable. This is not how students and studies ought to be. Those who neglect their studies do not deserve to be called students. However, there are some students, who, either with the guidance of their parents and teachers or by themselves, being disciplined and sincere, study regularly according to a time-table and proceed with the lessons easily. You too must learn this tact. Find our how much of time you are left with, apart from your school hours. Sundays and half of Saturdays are yours, as also the let-off hours. If you can intelligently utilize every minute of the time thus given to you, not only will you be able to revise all the lessons but you will truly build up a great personality. It is impossible to make good use of time without a time-table. How should you draw a time-table? First of all, fix up the hours of going to bed and walking up. If these timings change, your time-table will be in vain. Being young, it is best for you to go to bed at ten in the night and wake up at five in the morning. A sound sleep at night is most essential for your mind to be calm, steady and fresh throughout the day. If you utilise the seventeen hours of the day efficiently you can do wonders and if you give sufficient work to your body and mind, you can be sure of enjoying undisturbed sleep during the night. Between the hours when you wake up in the morning and go to bed at night, you must have time for your prayers, studies and all other activities. For this you must prepare a suitable time-table yourself. Or you may take the help of your teachers in this regard. 3. After your bath you should allot some time--ten minutes of half an hour, as much as you are capable of--for chanting of 'stotras', prayers and meditation. This is very helpful in developing a balanced and healthy mind. You must also pray to God like this before going to bed: 'O Lord, with your grace, I have been able to utilise this day worthily. Yet there might have been some shortcomings. Bless me with strength and discrimination to overcome my faults and lead me forward.' Pray from the bottom of your heart and God will certainly answer your prayers. What more? You can witness your mind growing stronger day by day. 4. I have mentioned about bath--please do not ever neglect this. As sweat forms and evaporates during the course of the day, the salts contained in it dry up and get deposited on the skin. Dust gets added to this. If you do not care to wash and clean your body and hair properly, the mind will get restless and slowly loses its vigour. This will damage both your ability to study and to remember whatever is studied. It is better to cultivate the habit of taking bath in the morning and again in the evening. Bathing in cold water is best; if this is not possible, use luke-warm water, but, never hot water. If you want to get used to cold water: firstly, the body and mind will remain active and fresh. Secondly, this is very helpful for the observance of 'brahmacharya.' 5. Now, coming to the point of time-table: I would like to make a small suggestion here. You must make it a point to read before-hand all the lessons which are taught each day in the school. If you do so, you will be able to grasp the subject well when the teacher explains it. You will come to understand the portions that you had not understood when you read the lesson by yourself. With your doubts now cleared, you can revise these lessons at home in the evenings. So, prepare before going to school and revise after returning home. Please make an experiment with this for just three months. You will be surprised with the results. If you can continue the practice right through the year with a little grit and determination, neither will the lessons bore you, nor will the exams seem strenous. But, you must know that if you vow to stick on to this practice strictly, you cannot afford to waste time in roaming about, watching television for hours and chatting with friends. You will have to be like one observing a vow, until the annual exams are over. Indeed, education is a vow to be fulfilled. So, please know that you are under a pledge. The truth is this--teachers are bound to the oath of imparting knowledge and students, of receiving it and making it their own through deep study. Nothing can be achieved without a strong will-power. 6. One more word regarding the time-table. You should draw up special time-tables from time to time, apart from the regular one, to utilise the extra time in hand, during special holidays like festivals, Christmas, etc. 7. It is better if others at home are informed about your time-table, so that they will not disturb you with other jobs during your study-hours. When you once sit down to study, you should get immersed in it for at least an hour without getting up or peeping out of the window. This might be difficult at first, but if you persist with your efforts, both your body and mind will gradually come fully under your control. At the end of an hour, leave your seat, stroll about in the open air, drink a glass of water and come back to your studies. Drinking water now and then improves the flow of blood, thereby activating the mind. 8. You are likely to come across difficult words while reading. So always keep a dictionary with you. If you learn the correct usage of every word, your command over the language will grow, making your study increasingly fruitful. If the meanings of the words are well understood, the contents will be understood more clearly; then, enthusiasm to read and assimilate more and more will be naturally created. In this way, repeatedly revise your lessons--read and understand, understand and read. This is the secret to master the lessons. There are many students who want to know the technique of improving their memory. This is best done by understanding the lessons clearly, reading them repeatedly and also practising them in writing. I shall let you know some more ideas by and by. 9. I hope you do have a table and chair. If not, you should at least have a small desk. Make sure that there is appropriate distance between your eyes and the desk. Keeping your face close to the book will strain eyes and mind quickly and your studies will suffer. 10. Next, please see that you use good pens and pencils. It is advisable to have two good pens with you. Never let others use them. The style of holding a pen varies from person to person. So you can guess the consequence of lending your pens to others. You will have to practice writing with a new pen for a few days before you can use it comfortably. It is possible to maintain a good handwriting even while writing with speed, only with a good pen. The examiners will expect your papers to be neat and legibly written. If your answers are neat, they will gladly award more marks, whereas if your writings are clumsy, you might lose even the marks that are rightly due to you. Therefore pay attention to your writing. Good handwriting demands five important things: 1. The letters must be well-formed. 2. There should not be any blots and scratches. 3. There must be no spelling mistakes. 4. Lines must be straight. 5. Sentences must be grammatically correct. You should know that both reading and writing constitute your study. Accuracy in writing is as important as discreet reading. Since you have to answer all the questions within a fixed time, should you not practise fast writing? You must practise a little writing every day without fail. 11. I have to say a couple of words about practising writing. Make it a habit to practise copy-writing. I still remember our teacher making us practise copy-writing everyday when I was a student. I remember that well, because he used to put his cane to good use during the process! There were beatings each time-- when the letters were not neat, when there were mistakes. When the lines were not straight, when the letters were uneven in size, when the spacing between words was not proper, when letters were found tumbling over each other; and other instances were when the copy-writing was not tidy or when copy-writing was not done at all--that called for additional beating! So there would be beatings and beatings for one fault or the other. Thus did we learn our lessons! Of course we were then angry with the teacher for flourishing his cane on us, but now I remember him with gratitude. You do not have to practise copy-writing by writing the same line over and over again like primary school children. Daily write a couple of paragraphs from your textbooks in each of the languages you have to study. You yourself try to judge if the letters are neat and the lines are straight and check for mistakes with the help of the text. You will realise how careful one has to be even to copy what is given, correctly. That is about copy-writing. You also have to develop the ability of writing about a topic on your own. You can take the help of your text-book for this. Read through a whole lesson carefully and reflect upon the contents. Then close the book and write it in your own words. Now compare and contrast what you have written with the text. Also check if the letters are well written, the lines are straight and how many times you have blundered and struck off what was written. Note down the time you took to write the whole thing. The next time when you write something try to avoid all the mistakes committed earlier. With this sort of practice, you will be able to write both neatly andcorrectly in the exams. 12. Studying to fare well in the exams is as important as studying to gain
knowledge. One may be intelligent and may have knowledge. But what beauty is there if he fails in the exams? For success in the exams, you should pay equal attention to all the subjects. You have written that mathematics and science do not interest you much. But you should evoke interest and study them for the sake of the exams at least. You will have to take more interest in subjects that you find difficult. You should, with extra efforts, try to assimilate those portions with the help of your teachers or intelligent classmates. Is not education equal to a penance? You must strive hard.
It is true that you will have to memorize certain portions. But never attempt to learn by-heart whole lessons. Some students very 'bravely' try to pass exams by mugging-up notes--that too not their own! Do not ever attempt to do this. If you indeed understand each and every word of the lessons, they will remain rooted in your memory better than with attempt at mugging-up.
13. There is yet another way of retaining the lessons in memory. On sundays and other holidays you should gather three or four of your classmates for group study; and after that, hold group discussions and exchange thoughts. Thereby each more of you will be sharing what he knows with the others and the topics discussed will get registered in your minds. Hearing is always very effective. You might have seen many men and women who would have gathered a lot of information just by listening to discourses and 'harikatha puranas'. Therefore cultivate the habit of discussing the lessons with your classmates. What you read you may not remember, but whatever you hear from others will generally get imprinted in the mind. And again, studying and discussing in a group arouses enthusiasm. Then the mind becomes energetic and your studies will prove more fruitful. But beware of wasting time in idle talk. Because when friends gather.... you know what happens!
14. I have yet to tell you a very important point. Always sit in one of the benches in the front during the classes. Keep your eyes and ears fixed wholly on the teacher and listen attentively to what he says. Pleased with your sincerity he too will bestow more attention on you. Be polite and faithful with regard to all your teachers. Whatever be the comments passed by other students against teachers, never get influenced or perturbed. However stern a teacher might be, if you behave respectfully, he will be kind and considerate towards you.
There are some students who say--'Knowing the personal life of certain teachers, we do not feel like respecting them.' But let me tell you one thing--never try to know about the personal lives of such teachers. Do not hear what other students speak about such matters. Look upon all your teachers with the feeling that in their hearts resides the same Eternal Teacher--Sachidananda Guru. Though you may find this difficult to understand, believe in these words of wisdom and act accordingly. This feeling will definitely help you and do immense good to you.
15. Some students approach me during the months of February and March and ask me how they can develop concentration. They say that they want to control the mind and some say they want to practise meditation. Is it not wonderful?! But what they actually want to know is whether there is some technique whereby the whole lot of lessons, neglected through-out the year, can be miraculously taken into the brain at one stroke! But, alas, there is no such miracle in the world. The secret of good memory-power is, repeated reading and understanding, recollecting and re-reading what is forgotten. Bhagavadgita says that concentration is achieved by perseverance and practice. What is perseverance? It is to attempt again and again, day after day. The mind will naturally become concentrated if you study systematically every day. The power produced by practice is immense.
Yet another important requisite in developing concentration is to develop a liking for your studies. You must love your lessons. Your mind will get concentrated in whatever you truly love. This is a natural law. You should therefore cultivate a liking for your lessons. This will help you to concentrate on them during your studies.
16. These are some of the things directly related to your studies. There are certain other things that need your attention. Firstly, food. Eating the proper quantity of nutritious food at the proper hours keeps your mind calm and fresh. Over-eating induces sleep, eating less causes exhaustion. Irregular intake of food robs the mind of its calmness.
17. Now, about exercise for the body. Let those who play do so. But you either practise 'Yogasanas' or do free-hand exercises. It is sufficient if within three-fourths of an hour every limb of your body is exercised. Never overdo exercises nor discontinue their practice. Always remember this counsel regarding exercises.
18. ou can avoid many diseases by always drinking boiled and cooled water. Diseases are a major obstacle in the path of your progress. They cripple the enthusiasm of the mind and the body. So beware!
19. Now, this is another very important point that you have to note--enthusiasm Be ever filled with zeal Ceaseless enthusiasm! It is this that make4s us victorious in all walks of life. You should become a spring of unceasing enthusiasm. Your elders should have created this enthusiasm in you by encouraging you. But when most of the elders are weighed down by their own problems and expect encouragement themselves, how will they provide you with enthusiasm? Therefore you will have to bring it out from within yourself.
You can resort to another plan for this. Order yourself thus: 'In the coming exams I shall score more marks than my friends and pass creditably'. This will undoubtedly build up determination in you.
In effect, you should be enthusiastic like a bouncing ball and not be like soaked flattened-rice! Be cheerful always. If you wear a long face with a frown, it will put out even the little enthusiasm that you have. If you try to wear a beaming countenance,by and by your enthusiasm will multiply and make you the very image of infinite energy, vitality and zest. As a result, your studies will become enjoyable and successful. Please see that the fountain of your enthusiasm springs higher and higher with each successive day.
Another word about zeal--if the mind is free from sleepiness, it remains wide-awake and active. Thereby it would naturally remain enthusiastic. This enthusiasm will in turn fight away drowsiness and keep your mind alert. From this observation do you not realise that, as a result of guarding your enthusiasm, your mind will always remain lively?
You might have seen many students drink coffee or tea from time to time in order to stay awake. But gradually the coffee or tea will get 'suited' to your constitution and that itselfr will induce sleep! So, the best way of maintaining enthusiasm is to develop the ambition of scoring high marks and cultivate a healthy competitive spirit.
20. Do you know of an enemy in your path? It is fear: 'Examination-fear!' This attacks most of the students. Under its stress, those who are weak become victims of fever and suffer from vomiting and loose- motions. The word 'Examination fever' has been specially coined for this 'disease.' The basic reason for this is nothing but fear of the exams. Even the students who have studied well and prepared well become nervous at the time of exams. Then what to speak of other students? So, to get out of this fear, tell yourself--'What will I gain by feeling afraid? I will only fall sick. Should I get panicky for the sake of falling sick? Never! I shall study well and face the exams boldly.'
Here lies the solution to examination fear. What is it? Studying right from the beginning of the year systematically. A regular, disciplined student need not fear the exams. Yet, fear is inherent in man. So, with all your studies you may experience fear. There are possibilities of fear gripping the mind, when you see other lazy students of your class panic-- 'Oh! the exams are fast approaching, my revision is not yet over. What shall I do!' But know for sure that if you shelter this fear, it will deprive your mind and body of their strength. The only result can be this-- you will seem to forget all that you have studied while writing the exam. It is this fear that makes you write confused answers.
Therefore, it is important to root out the fear-complex lurking in your mind, by combining self-confidence with disciplined study.
21. Now, you have heard a new word: self-confidence! What does it mean? It means faith in your own strength, faith in your studies. The strong conviction that you would write the exams well, with a calm mind--this is self-confidence. If you can develop this, fear vanishes and enthusiasm springs up.
22. So, you have come to know many things now. If you understand them all, you can be sure of success. There is one final advice-- you should keep reading this letter now and then. You must assimilate what all has been written here, before commencing your study. You should also check now and then whether you are regular in following these suggestions without fail.
May the Lord bless you to swuccessfully pass your next exams with flying colours!
With love and best wishes,
---Swami Purushottamananda.

EARLY CHALUKYAN TEMPLES (C.500-750)

While the Gupta temples were being built in central and north India, a brisk building activity was being pursued in a part of the Deccan with principal centres at the early Chalukyan sites of Aihole, Badami, Mahakuteshwara and LPattadakal, in district Bijapur of Karnataka State. (Situated only a few miles apart from one another, these are usually overlooked byh an ordinary visitor because of their location in an unfrequented interior part of the State. But those who seek to know will find a visit to these places highly rewarding). This move,ment started about the 5th century and laster till the 8th and initiated several significant temple-forms which later developed into the highly ornate temples of Belur and Halehid. The earliest temple of this region is the Ladh Khan at Aihole, distance of 13km from Pattadakal,. Here we notice that a Gupta form had already been conceived. Of the scores of temples which adorn Aihole, 4 are of outstanding importance for the development of northern temple style, viz., the Durga, Huchchimalligudi, Huchchappayyagudi (Temple No.9) and Temple No.24, all dating from 6th-7th centuries. The shikhara appearing over these temples is of the early experimental variety, representing a prototype of the characteristic north Indian type. The Durga Temple is a peripteral structure with an apsidal sanctum and mandapa, comprising nave and aisles, enclosed by a pillared verandah, with a portico approached by 2 lateral flights of steps, the whole raised on a high mioulded socle. The mandapa is lighted by elegantly carved, perforated trellises which alternate with niches containing images of deities. The mandapa has a flat roof of 2 tiers, that over the nave being higher. The apsidal sanctum is surmounted by a heavy shikhara, lately placed, of 3 rathas and more than 2 storeys indicated by bhumi-amalakas. The Huchchimalligudi Temple is a rectangular structure consisting of a square sanctum, enclosed by a covered processional passage, a vestibule, a pillared hall and a projecting porch. The sanctum is roofed by a curvilinear shikhara. The facade is plain but for a frieze of vase pattern on the parapet of the porch. This is the earliest temple to introduce a vestibule between the sanctum and the mandapa. The Huchgchappayyagudi Temple at the same site is a version without ambulatory of the foregoing and shows a more ornate door-frame and superior sculptures found on the cardinal niches of the sanctum. The only temple at Aihole to show a well-presented shikhara, complete with neck, amalasaraka and pitcher finial, is Temple No.24 which closely resembles the Huchchappayyagudi, with a similar but heavier shikhara.
Mahakuteshwara, situated near Badami, has a group of temples of which one known as Sangameshwara, comprising a sanctum and a portico, is of some importance. The sanctum displays a sculptured niche in each cardinal offset and carries a stumpy and massive shikhara, partially resembling the early temples of Aihole.
The temple art blossomed further at the last and latest, Chalukyan centre of Pattadakal, 29km from Badami, which shows temples of both northern and southern styles. As temples of northern style incorporate some features of the southern and vice-versa, it appears that the architectural conventions had not yet crystallised. Among the temples of the northern style, those of the Kadasiddheshwar and Jambulinga are the simplest, comprising only a sanctum and a mandapa. The sanctum of each has a sculptures niche on the bhadra-projections and is crowned by a squat and ponderous shikhara. Each carries a prominent sukamasa-antifix over the constr5icted vestibule and has a latticed window on the lateral sides of the mandapa.
The Kashivishwanath Temple is similar on plan to the foregoing, with the difference that its shikhara shows an advance and is of the pancha-ratha variety, divided into 5 storeys, and its mandapa carries a flat roof of 2 tiers, the higher one raised over the nave-pillars.
The Galaganath is a temple with a conspicuous projectioin on the 3 sides of the sanctum ambulatory. The vestibule has survived, but the mandapa has disappeared. This is the only temple at Pattadakal which stands on a moulded platform, decorated with a short parapet design. The shikhara storey is slightly taller and more proportionate and it is complete with a globular amalasaraka and a short finial. It bears a marked resemblance to the Alampur group of temples in the outline and proportion of the shikhara and in the design of the ambulatory.
The temple of Papanath at the same site is a long low structure with porch, hall, vestibule and sanctum, the last surmounted by a stunted northern type of shikhara, too small in proportion to the total dimensions of the building, while the vestibule is proportionately larger, almost assuming the dimensions of a court. The main decoratioin on the wall is a central band of proje cting niches, representing a repeated shrine-motif, which though quite pleasing in itself, shows a poverty of idea. The unbalanced and inorganic plan and design of the temple indicate that it still belongs to a formative and experimental stage.
More significant than the above is the group of temples at Alampur in District Mahabubnagar, adjoining Hyderabad and situated on the bank of the river Tungabhadra. This place has 9 temples, popularly known as the Nava-Brahma temples, of which 8 belong to the northern style and one (of Tarka-Brahma) to the southern style. The temples of the northern style, locally called the Vishva-Brahma, Vira-Brahma, Arka-Brahma, Kumara-Brahma, Bala-Brahma, Padma-Brahma, Garuda-Brahma and Svarga-Brahma, mark the culmination of the Chalikyan architecture and are comparable to the early Pratihara temples of north India in essential features of plan, compositioin and embellishment. Their layout is more logical and organic than that of the Papanath Temple at Pattadakal over which they mark a distinct improvement. The incongruities of the Papanath Temple, illustrated by the strings of shrine-models of the southern order (adorning its first floor parapet), are not found at Alampur. The principle decoration of the wall, composed of niches and latticed windows, attains here a lyrical elegance and the modelling of sculptures is more sensitive and less weighty. The heavy mouldings of the podium and the ponderous cornice mouldings, separating the wall from the shikhara noticed at Papanath, are here subdued and become more architectonic. The shikhara is more balanced and shows a better curvature, though it is still tri-ratha in design. The vestibule forms an integral adjunct of the sanctum. In front of the vestibule stretches the central pillared nave of the mandapa with a higher roof, resembling a clerestory, resting on 4 to 8 pillars and a pair of pilasters. The nave is surrounded by aisles with a sloping roof. A pillared portico is added in front of the mandapa only in two cases. Two doorways are usually provided in the interior. In most cases the door-frame shows an extended overdoor design and the tutelary image depicts Garuda, holding the tail ends of adoring nagas who form a canopy over the heads of Ganga and Yamuna, appearing on the lower parts of the jambs. The mandapa pillars carry ornate brackets, usually ornamented with the typical foliage of the Pratihara age. The pillars, however, differ in details; the central nave pillars of the Vishva-Brahma Temple show the Pallava type of sejant lion motif at the base. The sanctum proper is tri-ratha corresponding to the similar design of the shikhara and exhibits a sculptured niche on each bhadra projection.
Thus in respect of general plan and design and many typical architectural and decorative motifs such as ornamental, square rafter ends, composition of niches and the niche-shrines of the sanctum transepts and the garland loop pattern surmounting the jangha (wall), these temples come close to the temples of early Pratihara age.
The Svarge_Brahma Temple has an inscription of Chalukya Vijayaditya (696-733) of the Badami family and the Kumara-Brahma mentions a Vallabha, the well-known viruda of the early Chalukya kings, in characters of the 7th-8th centuries. These temples, therefore, appear to have been erected under the patron-age of the early Chalukya rulers of Badami during the 7th-8th centuries.

CHATRASAAL

FATHE SINGH , JORAVAR SINGH

BIRBAL SAHANI

GURUTEJ BAHADUR

RAMSINGH KUKAA

NANDANAAR

ANANTA LAKSHMANA KANHAARE

TELUGU FAMOUS PERSONALITIES

Abburi Varada Raajesvara raavu, (1923-1993)
[Abburi Varada Rajeswara Rao]
Prominent poet, critic and educator. On the editorial staff of several literary magazines. Taught for some time at Univ. Wisconsin, Madison.


Harikathaa Pitaamaha,

Ajjaada Aadibhatla Naaraayana Daasu (1864-1945)

[Ajjada Adibhatla Narayana Dasu]
The foremost modern exponent of the literary and performing arts genre "harikatha." Great musician and scholar of Telugu, Sanskrit and Persian. Principal of Maharaja Music College, Viziyanagaram.


(1922-)
[Ajanta -Penumarti Viswanatha Sastry]
Eminent poet and editor. Made a very big impact on modern Telugu poetry even though he wrote only a few verses in all his life in a highly individualistic tone.


(1889-1942)
[Akkiraju Unakantam]
Eminent scholar of Telugu, Sanskrit, English, etc. Writer. Influenced early Telugu literary criticism.


padakavitaa pitaamaha, harikeertanaacaarya,
(1424?-1503)
Tallapaka Annamacharya
One of the greatest composers of South Indian classical tradition. World-class. Wrote more than 32000 compositions known as 'padam' as well as other major works. More than 14000 have been discovered to date on copper plate and stone inscriptions. He was the head of an astonishingly brilliant lineage. Seems to have influenced some other great composers of that time, e.g., Purandara Dasa.



( 1925-1998)
[Arudra -Bhagavatula Siva Sankara Sastry one*, ]
Major modern poet, critic, movie lyricist and literary historian. His "tvamEvaahaM" and the encyclopedic work on Telugu literature "samagraaMdhra saahityaM" are very influential.



( 1933-)
[Bapu -Sattiraju Lakshmi Narayana one*, two*, ..]
Eminent painter, cartoonist, movie director, writer, journalist. World class artist. Uniquely personalized style blending to perfection the classical Telugu lines and modern techniques. Had an enormous impact on contemporary Telugu arts, movies, etc.



(1874-1905)
[Bhandaru Achchamamba]
Writer and early pioneer of women's issues. Published a well known biographical work on prominent national and international women, "abalaa satcaritra ratnamaala" (1901).



Caaso ( 1915-1993)
[Chaganti Somayajulu]
Eminent writer of short stories and poetry. Although he wrote sparingly, many of his short stories have been translated into other languages. His indirect contributions include his influence on his friends such as Sri Sri and Narayana Babu. He was a long time president of Progressive Writers Association, arasaM.



(1870-1950)
[Chellapilla Venkata Sastry]
Brilliant and highly influential poet in the classical genre. Prolific literary genius. Trained a large number of famous writers. The second of the great duo tirupati vEnkaTa kavulu. Honoured as the first poet laureate of Andhra.

(1890-1952)
[Chilukuri Narayana Rao]
Well-known lexicographer, historian and scholar. Published "aandhra Bhaashaa caritraM" (1937) and a revised version of Sankaranarayana's English-Telugu Dictionary, etc.



Sinaare -1931
C. Narayana Reddy
Well-known poet, educator, critic, administrator, and song writer for the movies. For his epic poem viSvaMbhara in modern style the highest literary award in India j~naanapeetha, was given to him in 1987. He also produced several other major works, e.g., karpUra vasaMta raayalu.



Arthur Cotton (1803-1899)
Perhaps the most beloved western personality in Telugu history. Knighted. One of the finest civil engineers of 19th cent. Built the anicut on Godavari at Dhavaleswaram among other things. His irrigation works and plans transformed the economy of the coastal districts and very strongly influenced its current domineering position.



Charles Philip Brown (1798-1884)
Brilliant scholar of Telugu. Although he was not an Indian, he was intimately connected with Telugu literature for nearly sixty years and immensely contributed to its progress.


(1897-1925)
[Damerla Rama Rao]
Brilliant artist. Became well-known within a very short life span. Founded the Andhra School of Art at Rajamundry. There is an art gallery named after him at Rajamundry today.

(1872-1919)
[Divakarla Tirupati Sastry]
One of the greatest classical poets in the modern era. Excelled in several genres. The first of the famous duo "Tirupati Venkata kavulu."



( 1902-1975)
Gora -Goparaju Ramachandra Rao
Highly influential thinker and social reformer. Dedicated his life to developing atheistic thought in Andhra and beyond. Authored several works. Founded the Atheist Center, Vijayawada. His son lavaNaM is also a well-known atheist and thinker.



navayuga vaitaaLikudu,
(1862-1915)
Gurajada Appa Rao,
Perhaps the greatest modern writer in Telugu. Commands tremendous respect. Uncompromising intellectual and a social reformer in his own way. More than any one else's, his works defined the beginning of modern Telugu drama, poetry and short story. The Kanyasulkam drama and much of his poetry are world class. His contributions lay not only in the techniques but also in the refreshing, original and modern outlook and a deep humanistic spirit that he instilled in Telugu literature.



Visva daata, Desoddhaaraka,
(1868-1937)
[Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao]
Great philanthropist, scholar, editor, journalist and entrepreneur


(1833-1897)
[Mandapaka Parvatriswara Sastry]
Brilliant scholar of Sanskrit and Telugu. Authored 23 Satakas, several maalikas, and kaavyas. Well known for his travelogue yaatraa caritra.


(1930-)
Mangalampalli Balamurali Krishna
Brilliant musician in the South Indian classical style. Perhaps the finest from Andhra in his generation. Composer, vocalist, and music scholar.



(1879-1945)
[Mutnuri Krishna Rao]
Great editor and journalist. His Krishna Patrika was instrumental in shaping the Telugu Literary scene for four decades beginning 1907.

(1933-)
Nataraja Ramakrishna
Very influential dancer, scholar and writer on Telugu dance forms. Single handedly revived the forgotten art form "aaMdhra naaTyaM." Although he was born in Bali, his service to Telugu, his ancestral language and its culture is very meritorious.



(1882-1955)
[Oleti Parvatisam]
Pioneering modern writer. The second of the famous duo "vEMkata paarvateeSvara kavulu." Authored major kavyas, children's literature and novels. Produced several translations.

Naada Brahma,
Kaakarla Tyaaga Raaju (1767-1847)
Perhaps the most famous of all the South Indian composers. Part of the great trio of Carnatic music. Great writer. Devotee of Lord Rama. He has a very large lineage of brilliant pupils (Sishya parampara). Greatly praised and revered as a saint. Hailed as "on whose art no human hand can improve!"


(1927)
Vedantam Satyanarayana Sarma
Famous exponent of the kUcipUDi style dance drama. Well-known for his portrayal of female roles, e.g., satya bhaama in bhaamaa kalaapaM. Influenced several other artists.


Telugu caitanyOdyama saarathi,
(1848-1919)
[Kandukuri Viresalingam]
One of the most brilliant and profoundly influential writers in Telugu. One of the greatest social reformers of 19th century India.



(1932-)
Vecheru Narayana Rao,
Eminent literary critic and educator. Krishnadevaraya Professor of Languages and Cultures of Asia, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. Produced several well-known translations of medieval Telugu poetry in English. Collaborated with many western scholars. His seminal work "telugulO kavitaa viplavaala svarUpaM" is highly influential.


(1930)
Vempati China Satyam
Eminent dancer, scholar and dance composer in the kUcipUDi style. Founded the Kuchipudi Art Academy, Madras and a trained several top performers.

kavi samraa,
(1890-1976)
[Visvanatha Satyanarayana]
The greatest classical style writer in modern times. A literary institution all by himself. His work and personality invoked just about every superlative (positive as well as negative) from various critics. Prolific writer and critic. Eminent educator. Significantly contributed to many diverse literary genres . Received India's highest literary award j~naanapeeTha for his raamaayaNa kalpa vRkshaM. His novels such as Veyi paDagalu are equally famous.